How to Read a Scientific Paper

Types of Scientific Papers:

 Original article:

                        information based on original research

 Case reports:

                       usually of a single case

 Technical notes:

                       describe a specific technique or procedure

Pictorial essay:

                       teaching article with images.

Review :

                      detailed analysis of recent research on a specific topic

Commentary :

                      short article with author’s personal opinions

Editorial:

                      often short review or critique of original articles

Letter to the Editor :

                     short and on subject of interest to readers.

Organization of a Paper:

1. Title
2. Abstract
3. Introduction
4. Methods
5.  Results
6.  Discussion/Conclusions
7. Acknowledgements
8.  References 

IMRAD Format:

• Introduction:  What was the question?
•  Methods:  How did the research(s) try to answer it?
•  Results:  What did the researchers find? • And
• Discussion:  What do the results mean?

Title :

 describes paper’s content clearly using keywords (for databases and search engines)

Abstract :

             a summary (~ 150-200 words) of the problem, the method, the results and the conclusions;  the reader can decide whether or not to read the whole article.

Introduction :

 clearly states the problem being investigated and reasons for the research summarizes relevant research to provide context; identifies the questions being answered briefly describes the experiment, hypothesis(es), research question(s) and general experimental design or method.

Methods :

´  provides the reader enough details so they can understand and replicate the research

´   explains how the problem was studied

´  identifies the procedures followed

´   explains new methodology in detail

´  includes the frequency of observations, what types of data were recorded, etc.

Results :

´  presents the findings, and explains what was found

´  shows how the new results are contributing to the body of scientific knowledge

´   follows a logical sequence based on the tables and figures presenting the findings to answer the question or hypothesis(es)

Discussion/Conclusions :

´   describes what the results mean regarding what was already known about the subject

´    indicates how the results relate to expectations and to the literature previously cited

´   explains how the research has moved the body of scientific knowledge forward

´   outlines the next steps for further study

Acknowledgements

´  recognize various contributions of other workers

References :

´  the sources of previously published work and includes information not from the experiment and not ‘common knowledge’

Actions to Take:

´  Skim the article without taking notes:

´  Read the abstract; it will tell you the major findings of the article and why they matter

´    Read first for the ‘big picture’

´   Note any terms or techniques you need to define

´   Jot down any questions or parts you don’t understand

´   If you are unfamiliar with any of the key concepts in the article, look them up in a textbook or search at Internet

´  Re-read the article more carefully especially the ‘methods’ and ‘results/conclusions’ sections:

´   Carefully examine the graphs, tables, and diagrams

´  Try to interpret the data first before reading the captions and details

´   Make sure you understand the article fully

´  Ask yourself questions about the study, such as:

´   What problems does the study address?

´    Why is it important?

´   Is the method good?

´    Are there any assumptions?

´  Are the findings supported by evidence?

´   Are the experimental settings repeatable?

´   Are they unique and supported by other work in the field?

´  Write a ‘summary’ of the article

´   Describe the article in your own words

´    to distill the article down to its ‘scientific essence’

´    Note the ‘key points’ - purpose of the study/questions asked, assumptions, major findings and conclusions, questions unanswered & any surprises.

´  Draw inferences (a conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning):

´   Distinguish main points:

´  Take notes as you read:

Difficulties in Reading Papers:

  Papers can be poorly written:

´    some scientists are poor writers and others do not enjoy writing

´  author can be so familiar with the material that he/she cannot see it from the point of view of a reader not familiar with the topic

  Bad writing has consequences for the reader:

´   logical connections are often left out

´   instead of saying why an experiment was done, or what ideas were being tested, the experiment is simply ‘described’;

´    papers often are cluttered with ‘jargon’

´  authors often do not provide a clear road-map through the paper

´  The reader cannot easily understand what the experiment was:

              the descriptions are not well-written and it is ambiguous what was done

´    authors refer back to previous papers

´   these refer in turn to previous papers in a long chain

´  it is unclear which methods were used in this experiment

´  Authors are uncritical about their experiments:

´   if they firmly believe in a particular model, they may not be open-minded about other possibilities

´   these may not be tested experimentally, and may go unmentioned in the discussion

´    authors do not clearly distinguish between fact and speculation especially in the Discussion/Conclusions