Research Method

What is Research

“Careful study and investigation, especially in order to discover new facts or information” (Oxford paperback dictionary, 3rd edition)

Examples of Everyday Research

1. Finding out why the car will not start.
2. Finding out which local supplier has the best offers for home computers

 Example of Formal Research

• Attempting to discover the advantages and disadvantages of using various software testing methods on large scale software development projects.
•  Research is a process of enquiry and investigation.
• Research is a systematic and careful process.
• Research increases knowledge
•  Research means finding answers to the questions.
•  It is a systematic search for truth.
• Through research, new and original information, ideas about the world we live in, are obtained. Research is search for knowledge.
• Research is defined as a scientific and systematic search for information on a specific topic.

Different Levels of Research:

´  1. Level one: research assistant Learn the drill

´  2. Level two: homework like research Build up your confidence

´  3. Level three: formulating your own problem and solve it Exercise your creativit

´  4. Level four: formulating problems for others to solve Realize your vision

What is Good Research

´  1. Novelty (better if you were not able to publish it at first)

´  2. Simplicity (better if your advisor refused to grant you a degree)

´  3. Universality (better if others found it trivial at first sight)

Warning Signs of Bogus Research

´  1. Prove by successful instances

´  2. Results too complicated to reproduce

´  3. Reinvent the wheel without proper acknowledgment

´  4. Tackle ill-posed problems directly

      Such results will NOT stand the test of time!

How does Doing Research Feel Like?

´  1. An endless cycle between excitement and depression…

´  2. An endless cycle between sense of success and failure…

´  3. An endless cycle between over-confidence and self-doubt…

´  How does Doing Research Feel Like?

´  Research needs faith in there are always interesting new things for you to discover and by doing so you can make the world a better place!

‘Six’ Phases of Research

´  1. Problem definition and hypothesis formulation

´  2. Literature review

´  3. Selection of research design, subjects, and data collection techniques

´  4. Data gathering

´  5. Data processing and analysis

´  6. Implications, Conclusions, and Recommendations

Statistics

We use statistics for many reasons:

• To mathematically describe/depict our findings

• To draw conclusions from our results

• To test hypotheses

• To test for relationships among variable

Numerical representations of our data:

Descriptive statistics

summarize data. 

 Inferential statistics

are tools that indicate how much confidence we can have when we generalize from a sample to a population.

Why we use statistics?

1. Be sure our data is valid and reliable
2.  Be sure we have the right type of data
3. Be sure statistical tests are applied appropriately
4. Be sure the results are interpreted correctly
5. numbers may not lie, but people can

Levels of Measurement 

The relationship among the values that are assigned to a variable and the attributes of that variable.

1. Nominal- naming
2. Ordinal- rank order
3. Interval- equal intervals between values
4. Ratio- equal intervals AND an absolute zero (i.e. a ruler)

Statistics types:

1. Descriptive Statistics 
2. ´ Inferential Statistics

Descriptive Statistics:

1. Number
2. Frequency Count 
3. Percentage 
4. Deciles and quartiles 
5. Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Midpoint, Mode)
6. Variability 
7. Variance and standard deviation
8.   Graphs 
9. Normal Curve
10. Inferential Statistics

Inferential Statistics:

it allows you to make predictions (“inferences”) from that data. With inferential statistics, you take data from samples and make generalizations about a population.

Correlation:

                  The extent to which two variables are related across a group of subjects

1. Pearson r
2. Spearman rho
3. t-test 
4. Analysis of variance
5.  Regression analysis

Pearson r

• It  can range from -1.00 to 1.00
• 1.00 is a perfect inverse relationship—the strongest possible inverse relationship 
•  0.00 indicates the complete absence of a relationship 
•  1.00 is a perfect positive relationship—the strongest possible direct relationship
•  The closer a value is to 0.00, the weaker the relationship
•  The closer a value is to -1.00 or +1.00, the stronger it is.

Data and Statistics: 

Data: consists of information coming from observations, counts, measurements, or responses.

Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing, analyzing, and interpreting data in order to make decisions.

population

                 is the collection of all outcomes, responses, measurement, or counts that are of interest.

sample 

                 is a subset of a population.

Methods of Data Collection:

´  In an observational study, a researcher observes and measures characteristics of interest of part of a population.

´  In an experiment, a treatment is applied to part of a population, and responses are observed.

´  A simulation is the use of a mathematical or physical model to reproduce the conditions of a situation or process.

´  A survey is an investigation of one or more characteristics of a population.

´  A census is a measurement of an entire population.

´   A sampling is a measurement of part of a population.

Types of Samples:

 Stratified Samples :

A stratified sample has members from each segment of a population.  This ensures that each segment from the population is represented.

      Cluster Samples:

A cluster sample has all members from randomly selected  segments of a population.  This is used when the population falls into naturally occurring subgroups.

Systematic Samples:

A systematic sample is a sample in which each member of the population is assigned a number.  A starting number is randomly selected and sample members are selected at regular intervals.

         Convenience Samples:

A convenience sample consists only of available members of the population.

What is a Proposal?

A proposal is a request for financial assistance to implement a project.

OR

A research proposal is a plan, written by the student, that outlines intended research activities, for approval of a research supervisor or committee.

A research proposal: 

Defines what is to be studied, how, and when it Summarizes the work that has to be done for the report, thesis, or dissertation.

Clarifies why this research is important.

Purpose of Research Proposal

1. A research proposal should reflect that you have given some serious thought to the chosen subject, and made a real attempt to show how you intend to study it.
2. A good proposal indicates thorough preparation at an early stage and saves a great deal of time later on and always pays dividends.
3. Good proposals mostly lead to good dissertations.
4. Forces the student to focus attention on a research topic early in his/her studies.
5. Helps organised the research in a logical  manner, and in a way that models the final report.
6. Ensures that the research is doable.
7. Sometimes the best decision that can come from writing a proposal is a decision not to proceed.
8. Forms the basis for funding, if required.

Length and Size

25-point research report proposal:

1. Small, perhaps only two pages or even a form
2.  Due very early in the semester
3. General; emphasis on purpose and scope to determine “doability” .

100-point masters thesis proposal:

1.  Larger, perhaps 7-15 pages.
2. Due early in the semester, or even before acceptance into masters study.
3.  Shows some evidence of literature review.

PhD Dissertation Proposal:

300-400 point PhD dissertation proposal:

1. Large, perhaps 20-30 pages
2.  Due at end of provisional registration: 6 months full-time study.
3. A fairly complete research plan with well-defined conceptual framework and methodology.
4. Increasingly, must be approved by a committee and may be subject to external examination.

Content of Research Proposal: Outlines:

1. Provisional title
2. Purpose of the study.
3. Importance of the study.
4. Relationship to previous work.
5.  Methodology and data collection.
6. Timetable.
7.  Resource requirements.
8. Additional considerations (ethics, publication)

Title:

1. Nothing focuses attention on the topic like writing a title.
2. A title is a concise description of your research topic, usually no more than 15 words.
3. If possible, the title should include 

(a) key variables in the study, 

(b) the relationship between the variables and 

(c) the population to which the results apply.

 “Provisional” indicates it can be changed. 

Purpose of Study:

1. Every research proposal should have a sentence that begins: “The purpose of this study is to….”
2. Then, one of the following with brief explanations:
3. Research questions: to be answered
4. Research objectives: specific products to be produced
5. Hypotheses: one or more hypotheses to be tested.

Importance of Study:

1. Why is this a topic worth researching?
2. Who will benefit from this research?
3. Why/How will they benefit?
4.  What new knowledge is likely to be discovered? How is this original work?
5.  How will the student benefit?
6.  How will the research contribute to the literature? ( for sure, at Masters and PhD)

Budget:

1. Good – Give a detailed account of where you will be spending the money.
2. Approximately one third of the budget should go to supplies.

Relationship to Previous Work:

1.  All research proposals must show some evidence of a literature review, and almost always in the academic literature.
2. A comparative study: research done in a different context or country is replicated here, with an emphasis on why the results might be different.
3. A workplace application: an idea, theory, or conceptual model is applied in practice.
4. Rarely, original theoretical work.
5.  Grounded theory: development of theory based on observations
6.  Extensions of existing theory: extending or disproving theory.
7.  Include all cited work in a References section at the end of the proposal.

Methodology:

1. What methodology -- experiment, case study, action research, etc. -- will be used? Why?
2. What data collection methods -- survey, observation, interview, etc. -- will be used?
3. What sampling procedures will be used?
4.  How will results be analysed and interpreted, including statistical analysis.
5.  What problems or limitations can be expected?

Timetable:

• All research work can be viewed as a project, or a series of projects.
• Principles of project management apply.
• Work to a deadline: start at the end and work backwards.
•  Build in delays: most stages will take longer than planned.
• At a minimum, provide a list of activities and a week-by-week plan for carrying out the activities.
•  Project management software, such as Microsoft Project Manager, can be very useful.

Resources:

1. What resources will you need?
2. Clarify use of department-managed office space, computers, tape recorders, photocopiers, printers, staff, stationery, etc.
3. Computer software: quantitative analysis software, statistical software.
4.  Inter-library loan – Postage, photocopy, data entry for surveys.
5. Travel, transcription services for interviews.

Types of Scientific Papers:

 Original article:

                        information based on original research

 Case reports:

                       usually of a single case

 Technical notes:

                       describe a specific technique or procedure

Pictorial essay:

                       teaching article with images.

Review :

                      detailed analysis of recent research on a specific topic

Commentary :

                      short article with author’s personal opinions

Editorial:

                      often short review or critique of original articles

Letter to the Editor :

                     short and on subject of interest to readers.

Organization of a Paper:

1. Title
2. Abstract
3. Introduction
4. Methods
5.  Results
6.  Discussion/Conclusions
7. Acknowledgements
8.  References 

IMRAD Format:

• Introduction:  What was the question?
•  Methods:  How did the research(s) try to answer it?
•  Results:  What did the researchers find? • And
• Discussion:  What do the results mean?

Title :

 describes paper’s content clearly using keywords (for databases and search engines)

Abstract :

             a summary (~ 150-200 words) of the problem, the method, the results and the conclusions;  the reader can decide whether or not to read the whole article.

Introduction :

 clearly states the problem being investigated and reasons for the research summarizes relevant research to provide context; identifies the questions being answered briefly describes the experiment, hypothesis(es), research question(s) and general experimental design or method.

Methods :

´  provides the reader enough details so they can understand and replicate the research

´   explains how the problem was studied

´  identifies the procedures followed

´   explains new methodology in detail

´  includes the frequency of observations, what types of data were recorded, etc.

Results :

´  presents the findings, and explains what was found

´  shows how the new results are contributing to the body of scientific knowledge

´   follows a logical sequence based on the tables and figures presenting the findings to answer the question or hypothesis(es)

Discussion/Conclusions :

´   describes what the results mean regarding what was already known about the subject

´    indicates how the results relate to expectations and to the literature previously cited

´   explains how the research has moved the body of scientific knowledge forward

´   outlines the next steps for further study

Acknowledgements

´  recognize various contributions of other workers

References :

´  the sources of previously published work and includes information not from the experiment and not ‘common knowledge’

Actions to Take:

´  Skim the article without taking notes:

´  Read the abstract; it will tell you the major findings of the article and why they matter

´    Read first for the ‘big picture’

´   Note any terms or techniques you need to define

´   Jot down any questions or parts you don’t understand

´   If you are unfamiliar with any of the key concepts in the article, look them up in a textbook or search at Internet

´  Re-read the article more carefully especially the ‘methods’ and ‘results/conclusions’ sections:

´   Carefully examine the graphs, tables, and diagrams

´  Try to interpret the data first before reading the captions and details

´   Make sure you understand the article fully

´  Ask yourself questions about the study, such as:

´   What problems does the study address?

´    Why is it important?

´   Is the method good?

´    Are there any assumptions?

´  Are the findings supported by evidence?

´   Are the experimental settings repeatable?

´   Are they unique and supported by other work in the field?

´  Write a ‘summary’ of the article

´   Describe the article in your own words

´    to distill the article down to its ‘scientific essence’

´    Note the ‘key points’ - purpose of the study/questions asked, assumptions, major findings and conclusions, questions unanswered & any surprises.

´  Draw inferences (a conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning):

´   Distinguish main points:

´  Take notes as you read:

Difficulties in Reading Papers:

  Papers can be poorly written:

´    some scientists are poor writers and others do not enjoy writing

´  author can be so familiar with the material that he/she cannot see it from the point of view of a reader not familiar with the topic

  Bad writing has consequences for the reader:

´   logical connections are often left out

´   instead of saying why an experiment was done, or what ideas were being tested, the experiment is simply ‘described’;

´    papers often are cluttered with ‘jargon’

´  authors often do not provide a clear road-map through the paper

´  The reader cannot easily understand what the experiment was:

              the descriptions are not well-written and it is ambiguous what was done

´    authors refer back to previous papers

´   these refer in turn to previous papers in a long chain

´  it is unclear which methods were used in this experiment

´  Authors are uncritical about their experiments:

´   if they firmly believe in a particular model, they may not be open-minded about other possibilities

´   these may not be tested experimentally, and may go unmentioned in the discussion

´    authors do not clearly distinguish between fact and speculation especially in the Discussion/Conclusions

WHAT IS AN ABSTRACT?

A short, self-contained, powerful summary of an article, paper or thesis.

Length:

                                 between 150 and 250 words;

 Layout:

                                 usually one single paragraph; font size is different from the main text;

Position:

                                usually at the beginning of the paper (but it can appear elsewhere, e.g. in book of abstracts or on-line);

PURPOSES OF ABSTRACT?

1.  To persuade the reader to see the full text
2.  To help readers decide if the article is relevant for their purposes
3. To answer a call of paper in a conference
4. To make it possible for your piece of research to appear in online publication databases (indexing).

DIFFERENT TYPES OF ABSTRACT

   Abstracts are usually divided into two main categories:

DESCRIPTIVE AND INFORMATIVE

•Descriptive abstracts describe:

• What the text is about
•  The issues or problems explored
• The purpose and methodology of the research

Informative abstracts describe:

• What the text is about
• The issues or problems explored
• The purpose and methodology of the research
• The results
• The conclusion and recommendations.

WHAT TO INCLUDE

   Reason for writing:

• What is the importance of the research?
• Why would a reader be interested in the larger work?

   Problem:

• What problem does this work attempt to solve?
• What is the scope of the project?
• What is the main argument/thesis/claim?

  Methodology:

• An abstract of a scientific work may include specific models or approaches used in the larger study.
• Other abstracts may describe the types of evidence used in the research (e.g.  Qualitat.ive interviews, book reviews, etc.)

    Results:

• An abstract of a scientific work may include specific data that indicates the results of the project.
• Other abstracts may discuss the findings in a more general way.

   Implications:

• What changes should be implemented as a result of the findings of the work?
• How does this work add to the body of knowledge on the topic?

   To put it simple:

• What the author did
• How the author did it
• What the author found
• What the author concluded.

Definition of time management

• Time is not something that can be changed in any way, it cannot be accelerated or slowed, or stopped.
• Time itself cannot be controlled.
• Therefore time itself cannot be managed.
• We can only control our "use" of our time.
• Time management is essentially the organization of your time in a manner that most effectively helps you meet important goals.

Benefits of time management

• Gaining control over your time
• Having improved self-confidence and greater satisfaction
• Having less stress due to easier coping with the deadlines
• Having better productivity and performance
• A quality research with no time pressure.

Risks of improper time management

•      Becoming a slave to deadlines
• The more you delay (procrastinate), the more pressure will adversely affect your performance.
• Work done just before the deadlines is of very low quality.
• There is always a risk for failure for the work done under time pressure.
• Potential negative effect on interpersonal relations (poor student-supervisor relations, weakened group interactions, anxiety in personal relations etc)

Five steps of time management

1. setting goals
2. setting priorities
3. planning
4. scheduling
5. Revising

Setting goals

• are outcome statements that define what you are trying to accomplish .
•  describe future expected outcomes or states.
• provide programmatic direction.
•  focus on ends rather than means.
• Example: "Finishing the experiments for thesis"

Setting priorities

• priority and importance are not the same.
•  Importance implies the overall significance of the outcome.
•  Priority is a measure of both "importance" and the "urgency". So the priority of a goal depends both on its importance and its urgency.
• You must assign priorities to all tasks.
• The priorities may change by time. Therefore, they may be revised from time to time.
•  You may give priorities as "high", "medium" or "low"; or 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.
• You can give a high priority to a long term important task to give an early start to it.

“paralysis by analysis”:

• A perfectionist attitude will result with inabilities in assigning priority to the tasks since everything is equally important and urgent according to a perfectionist.
• They can’t easily choose a task to start with.
• At the end, they may prefer to do nothing.
• This phenomenon is known as “paralysis by analysis”.

Planning

• Planning is the listing of the tasks and establishing a time line that includes each task
• Planning involves other variables like budgeting, availability of resources, originality, data analysis methods, etc. and puts them on a timely basis.
• Planning usually starts by thinking about the goals and priorities.
• It could actually be completed in the mind.
• Most experts strongly recommend that you formalize the plan in writing to avoid forgetting something.
• You may have monthly, or weekly plans.

Scheduling

•    Scheduling is deciding when to spend the times you estimated on the tasks.
• Try to schedule your research activities into days or time-slots you are most likely to have minimum concentration distorts or disturbance.
• Leave enough flexibility in your scheduling for setbacks, time overruns, delays and other unforeseen reasons.

Revising

• Periodic revising of your goals and tasks, plans and schedules is necessary. For example, when goal-A of highest priority is finished, your Goal-B may become Goal-A.
• Revising is needed to compare your goals and objectives with your performance, and to see if you are proceeding as scheduled. If you have fallen behind the schedule, revise it.
• If you are ahead of schedule, then you can revise your goals to include more goals and objectives, or finish earlier.